The University’s Medieval Studies Research Group recently took over the editorship of the peer-reviewed annual, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Sources (formerly the Journal of Medieval and Renaissance History, est. 1964). To celebrate and showcase the diverse range of research that we do here on written, visual, and material sources, our first volume included contributions by nine members of University of Lincoln staff. We are delighted to report that this has now been published Open Access by ARC Humanities Press, thanks to the support of the University , especially Professor Stuart Humphries, and to the help of Claire Arrand at Lincoln Cathedral Archives: Lincoln Readings of Texts, Materials, and Contexts (oapen.org)
Edited by Dr Graham Barrett and Prof. Louise Wilkinson, Lincoln Readings of Texts, Materials, and Contexts: Supplementum to Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Sources, features peer-reviewed essays by nine Lincoln classicists, medievalists, and an early modernist. The essays cover topics including early doctrinal controversies, early Church councils, the Greek alphabet, disputes in thirteenth-century Rutland, the charters, letters, and seal of Lady Nicholaa de la Haye, castellan of Lincoln and sheriff, the proprietary queens of Jerusalem’s documents, the law and liturgy of trial by water in early medieval Iberia, a fourteenth-century aisled base-cruck building at Ketsby House Farm, and Mayflower materials in the Wren Library of Lincoln Cathedral.
The Lincoln-based contributors were: Drs Michael Wuk, Giustina Monti, Robert Portass (now Cambridge), Anais Waag (one of our Leverhulme ECRs), Graham Barrett (now Durham), and Profs Mark Gardiner (with Jenne Pape), Anna Marie-Roos, Louise Wilkinson, and Jamie Wood (with Marta Szada).
In recent weeks, our Lincoln Record Society-funded PhD student, Jessica Holt, has been working with Dr Nicholas Bennett of the Lincoln Record Society, the University of Lincoln’s Conservation Team, Lincoln Cathedral and the Lincolnshire Archives. Using multi-spectral imaging, they have managed to recover lost text in the registers of Bishop Thomas Bek of Lincoln (1342-1347).
During the nineteenth century, canon G. G. Perry applied a chemical reagent to several folios from MS. 209, a late fourteenth-century manuscript held at the library at Lincoln Cathedral. (5) This manuscript contains one of the only two surviving copies of Richard Rolle’s Officium et Miracula. (8)Regrettably the chemical reagent caused irreparable damage and rendered some of its’ text illegible as evidenced in the image of f.3 r. below. Perry was later named and shamed for his deed in 1866 in an edition of the Early English Text Society. (3)
Image 1: Lincoln Cathedral, MS 209 f.3 r. with the kind permission of the Dean & Chapter of Lincoln Cathedral.
The challenge of trying to decipher faded court hand is not unfamiliar for those working directly with manuscripts. Whilst today, UV lamps can be used to combat this problem, researchers in the nineteenth century were forced to seek out another solution. (4) Several attempts were made using different chemical reagents to enhance the legibility of metallic inks. (1) Contrary to their original intent, however, these substances have now rendered many documents unreadable, as these substances later darkened, coating their original texts with dark brown, black, or, in some cases, blue staining. Of these chemical reagents the most common were:
Tincture of Oak Gall (an alcohol-based tincture that utilises essence of oak galls)
Sulphuric Tinctures (mixtures typically comprised of calcium carbonate, calcium polysulphide, and calcium sulphate)
The ‘Giobert Tincture’ (mixture comprised of water, hydrochloric acid, and potassium hexacyanoferrate) (1)
Despite the clear damage these substances were causing to manuscripts across the course of the nineteenth century, these methods continued to be used as late as 1914, when Hugo Deunsing and Martin Flasher applied sulphuric tinctures to manuscripts stored in the library of the Orthodox Patriarchate in Jerusalem. (1)
Doctoral student, Jessica Holt, was forced to grapple with the damage caused by these chemical reagents when examining the registers of Bishop Thomas Bek of Lincoln (1342-1347). It quickly became apparent that several folios of register 6 had been damaged by an unknown nineteenth-century reagent. (6) Hope, however, laid with a technique known as multi-spectral imaging (MSI). MSI is a non-invasive scientific imaging technique that can be applied to manuscripts to recover lost text. (2, 7) This technique was also successfully used by the British Library in 2017 to recover script lost through fire damage, natural degradation, and chemical damage. (2) With the kind permission from the bishop of Lincoln, Lincoln Cathedral, and the Lincolnshire Archives, and the wonderful support of Claire Arrand, Dr Nicholas Bennett, and Professor Louise Wilkinson, we were able to transfer register 6 from the Lincolnshire Archives to the University of Lincoln, where we were able to use MSI to successfully recover the contents of the lost text with aid from Dr Philip Skipper and the conservation department.
Regrettably, unlike the damage caused to f.3 r. of MS. 209, the identity of the culprit has been lost to time. The positive results of MSI ultimately present an optimistic future for other researchers examining manuscripts similarly altered by nineteenth-century reagents.
*Jessica Holt is fortunate to have been awarded the Nigel Burn Memorial Postgraduate Studentship from the Lincoln Record Society to support her PhD.
References:
(1) Albrecht, Felix. ‘Between Boon and Bane: The use of Chemical Reagents in Palimpsest Research in the Nineteenth Century’, in M. J. Driscoll (ed.), Care and Conservation of Manuscripts 13 Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Seminar held at University of Copenhagen 13th-15th April 2001 (Brooklyn, 2012), 147-165.
(2) Duffy, Christina. ‘Multi-Spectral Imaging at the British Library’, 2018 3rd Digital Heritage International Congress (DigitalHERITAGE) held jointly with 2018 24th International Conference on Virtual Systems & Multimedia (VSMM 2018) (San Fransico, 2018), 1-4.
(3) English Prose Treatises of Richard Hampole, ed. G. G. Perry (1866).
(4) Kiernan, Kevin S. ‘The State of the “Beowulf” Manuscript 1882-1983)’, Anglo-Saxon England 13 (1984), 23-42.
(5) Lincoln Cathedral Library. MS. 209.
(6) Lincolnshire Archives. DIOC/REG/6-7b.
(7) Machain, Padriag O. ‘The Digitisation of Irish Manuscripts: Beyond and Beneath the Visible Image’, Studi Irlandesi 12 (2022), 43-56.
(8) The Officium and Miracula of Richard Rolle of Hampole, ed. Reginald Maxwell Wooley (Cornell, 1919).
Lincoln was home to an important and vibrant Jewish community in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Fortunately for us, this community has left behind a remarkable trail of evidence in our national and regional archives. Past histories of Lincoln’s Anglo-Jewish community have been dominated by the story of Little Hugh of Lincoln, for whose death 19 innocent Jews were executed in 1255. While evidencing the increasingly difficult circumstances in which the Anglo-Jewry lived prior to their expulsion from England in 1290, the surviving records provide some fascinating insights into the dynamics of Jewish life, the Jews’ religious, social and business interactions with one another, and their encounters with their Christian neighbours, the Cathedral clergy and the Crown’s officials.
For many years now, Lincoln has been home to the Lincolnshire Archives, one of the UK’s largest regional collections, which preserves the manuscript records of the medieval city, cathedral and diocese of Lincoln. In 2023, Professor Louise Wilkinson of the Medieval Studies Research Group received funding from the University of Lincoln’s QR Collaborations Scheme for a pilot project to survey the archival holdings relating to the medieval Lincoln Jewry that are held locally. She received valuable assistance from Dr Dean Irwin, our visiting fellow, who acted as academic advisor, from Simon Neal, our archival researcher, and from Jessica Holt, our research assistant. The project surveyed and compiled a handlist of documents relating to the medieval Jewish community that are held in Lincoln. We also hosted a free talk and document workshop at the Lincolnshire Archives in June 2023 to showcase its remarkable collections. In the longer term, we hope that this initiative may aid long-standing plans for an exhibition that is warmly supported by the head of Lincoln’s Jewish community.
A major output of our project has been the first handlist of documents held in the Lincolnshire Archives on the medieval Jewry. Simon Neal has produced English summaries of the Latin documents (some of which also contain Hebrew or have Hebrew records associated with them) that contain references to members of the medieval Jewish community. Simon worked carefully through a range of original single sheet deeds, as well as entries in cartularies and other miscellaneous documents. He also consulted microfilm copies and transcriptions of cartularies for Lincolnshire religious houses held elsewhere that are also available for readers to consult at the Lincolnshire Archives. The records of the Dean and Chapter of Lincoln Cathedral proved to be particularly fruitful, since they contain references to local Jewish families, their neighbours, their associates, their business partners and their residences. These include, for instance, a portion of a thirteenth-century chirograph that recorded the notification of a grant by Robert le Turnur to Jacob, son of Leo, a Jew of Lincoln, of some land in the parish of St Michael on the Mount, which lay next to Jacob’s house (Lincolnshire Archives, D&C, Dij/76/2/47). A notification of a grant by Lincoln’s famous female castellan, Lady Nicholaa de la Haye (d. 1230), to Peter the Woad Seller, of her land and houses in the parish of St Michael also carefully recorded how this property lay near the land formerly of Moses son of Benedict, a Jew of Lincoln (Lincolnshire Archives, D&C, Dij/76/2/22).
This image shows a notification of a grant of property by Nicholaa de la Haye (‘Nichola de la Haie’) to Peter the Woad Seller, mentioning the nearby land formerly of Moses son of Benedict, a Jew of Lincoln: Lincolnshire Archives, D&C, Dij/76/2/22. Copyright belongs to the Dean and Chapter of Lincoln Cathedral. Please note that reuse of this image is not permitted. We are very grateful to the Dean and Chapter of Lincoln Cathedral for granting us permission to use this image. We are also grateful to Claire Arrand, Lincoln Cathedral’s Librarian, and to the staff of the Lincolnshire Archives for their assistance.
There are also references among the documents in the Lincolnshire Archives to the properties of Jewish women like Belaset of Wallingford, who was hanged for clipping the king’s money (Lincolnshire Archives, D&C, A/1/8, fol. 107, no. 290), and Floria of London, who went into exile in Edward I’s reign (Lincolnshire Archives, D&C, Dij/75/2/27). In fact, there are some extremely interesting post-1290 grants of former Jewish property that enrich our understanding of the local context of the sad events surrounding the Expulsion.
Researchers are welcome to contact Louise Wilkinson to request a copy of the handlist.
In early October I had the opportunity to take Lincoln cathedral’s ‘Guided Rooftop Tour.’ Due to COVID restrictions, there was only a 3-week window when the tours were reopened before unfortunately the national guidance changed and the tours ceased. If, like me, you are fascinated with the history and architecture of cathedrals, then I strongly recommend signing up for one of these tours when they reopen. You get a full 90 minutes of behind the scenes access. Pictures are allowed to be taken on the tour, so I thought I would share some of my journey with those who might have interest.
The southwest chapel, Lincoln cathedral.
The tour began in the southwest chapel (Ringers’ Chapel), dedicated to the cathedral’s bell ringers where the names of the lead ringers are written on the walls above the altar. Thirteenth-century equilateral arcading and a colourfully decorated vaulted ceiling make even this first stop an enjoyable one.
A medieval stairwell in Lincoln cathedral.
My apologies for the poor quality of this image (above), but I wanted to show how narrow and tight the steps can be. This section of the cathedral retains much of its Norman feel, and the stairwells are similar to those in the White Tower in London. They go in a tight circle, so sturdy footwear and care in walking are a must.
Examples of semi-circular arches above the southwest chapel in Lincoln cathedral.
Above the southwest chapel are some excellent examples of Norman architecture, such as these semi-circular arches. These would have been on the ‘outside’ of the southwestern tower facing south prior to expansion. Unlike the western front of the cathedral, these stones have been removed from the outdoor elements since the mid-thirteenth century and have not discoloured.
Masons’ marks on stones in Lincoln cathedral.
On the next floor up there are some excellent remnants of the cathedral’s challenging past. These stones along the stairwell have turned red from the exposure to fire, possibly the one in 1141 that coincided with King Stephen’s siege of the castle, according to Jonathan Foyle. The ‘X’ marks were from masons inspecting the integrity of the stone, where those that were comprised by the heat of the fire were removed and replaced, as you can see in the two at the bottom of this image (above).
Examples of eleventh-century architecture in Lincoln cathedral.
The eleventh-century architecture is evident everywhere as you make your way up the western front of the cathedral, including here in the corner of the tower with a brightly lit western window and a closed off southern facing one. The metal bar is one of many that help ensure the stabilisation of the oldest part of the building. Earthquakes have been a historical problem for the cathedral, and these measures are intended to provide the building with an ability to ‘wobble’ slightly to prevent damage in the case of another earthquake.
The room that sits above the main western entrance is just below the roof between the two towers. Visitors can see a large model of the cathedral encased here that gives an excellent representation of the cathedral from 1311 to 1548, where the spire of its central tower made it the tallest building in the world at 160m.
An example of Norman architecture in Lincoln cathedral.
The room between the two towers also contains evidence of Norman architecture, long hidden from the public and the elements outdoors since expansion. This side faces inwards towards the other tower. It received the same level of detail as the western facing ones the public can see today from the ground. Through the window (turned door) you can see the bell ringers’ room with the cords descending from the ceiling. Due to the weight and counter-pull from the bells, ringing requires training and careful execution as it can be a dangerous task!
The roof between the towers that runs from the western front of the building back to the central tower.
This (above) is the roof between the towers that runs from the western front of the building back to the central tower. Our guide said that, while they replace wood that shows significant wear or strain, many of these beams are over 700 years old and most were made from the strong oaks in Sherwood Forest.
The vaulted ceiling and window bays of the nave of Lincoln cathedral from above.
Here (above) you can see the vaulted ceiling and window bays of the nave below.
Lincoln castle from the cathedral roof.
The tour also takes you outside to see both the southern and western views from atop the cathedral. The view from the western rooftop (above) provides a picturesque look at Lincoln castle. It is plausible that King Stephen himself came up here to assess the progress of his siege in 1141 (and perhaps even to see his cousin, Robert of Gloucester, arriving with an army to attack him from the plains beyond the castle).
The detail of the Norman stonework of Lincoln cathedral.
The western rooftop provides an opportunity to see the detail of the Norman stonework that cannot be appreciated from the ground level below with the naked eye. Here (above) the stark contrast between different time periods of the tower’s ride upwards can be seen, with differences of stone use and architecture just above the higher row of arcading.
The nave of Lincoln cathedral, seen from the roof.
There is a breath-taking view of the nave as the tour heads down from the rooftops and crosses between the towers. Walking along the triforium provides some beautiful views of the nave below, but attention must be given to the beams that often cross the walkway. Since I am vertically challenged, this was easier for me to navigate, but taller individuals should pay extra care on this part of the tour.
A stained glass window in the north transept of Lincoln cathedral.
The tour also provides an opportunity to see some beautiful stained glass in the north transept that cannot be seen by the public below (above). The tour then concludes after winding its way down the steps in the corner of the transept. I took plenty of more pictures but tried to limit what I have shared here to provide an overview of what a guest would see on this tour. When the tours open up again, I will be first in line for another opportunity to take it all in for a second time. I firmly believe this is the best value of anything I have experienced here in the UK, and I am sure that any historian or architecture enthusiast would find this tour an invaluable part of the Lincoln experience.
